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🟢 Belarus

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  • Policy: Belarus relies heavily on nuclear energy, where Ostrovets Nuclear Power Plant supplies approximately 40% of the country's electricity. Belarus plans to enhance energy security and reduce reliance on imported energy by constructing a second nuclear power plant or adding another plant at Ostrovets. (BelTA)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In November 2023, the second unit of the Ostrovets Nuclear Power Plant was put into commercial operation, marking the completion of the country's first nuclear power facility. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Belarus ratified updates to its nuclear power plant agreement with Russia, allowing for extended warranty periods and adjustments to fuel pricing and supply terms. (World Nuclear News)

    • In August 2024, Belarus and Hungary signed a roadmap for nuclear energy cooperation, focusing on personnel training, maintenance, and radioactive waste management. (World Nuclear News)

    • In September 2024, Belarus announced plans to increase the share of nuclear energy in its electricity mix to 40%, aiming to reduce natural gas consumption and enhance energy independence. (Global Energy Association)

    • In March 2025, the Belarusian Ministry of Energy completed an analysis for constructing a second nuclear power plant, with a feasibility study expected to be finalized by the end of 2025. (Nuclear Engineering International)

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🟢 Belgium

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  • Policy: Belgium repealed its 2003 Nuclear Exit Law on 15 May 2025, officially ending its plan to phase out nuclear power. This marks a major policy reversal, allowing for the continued operation of existing nuclear reactors and the construction of new ones. (VRT NWS)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In March 2025, the Belgian government and Engie finalized a deal to extend the lifespans of Doel 4 and Tihange 3 by 10 years, to 2035. Engie agreed to a €15 billion contribution toward nuclear waste costs. (ENGIE)

    • The European Commission approved the Belgian state aid package supporting this extension, finding it proportionate and necessary for energy security. (European Commission)

    • New Prime Minister Bart De Wever stated nuclear energy is essential for Belgium’s energy independence, setting a target to double capacity to 8 GW through both extensions and new builds. (Reuters)

    • Doel 1 was permanently shut down on 14 February 2025 after 50 years of service. Belgium now operates four nuclear reactors: Doel 2 and 4, and Tihange 1 and 3. (ENGIE Electrabel)

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🟢 Bulgaria

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  • Policy: Bulgaria relies heavily on nuclear energy, with the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant supplying approximately 35% of the country's electricity. The government plans to expand nuclear capacity by constructing two new reactors (Units 7 and 8) at the Kozloduy site, utilizing Westinghouse's AP1000 technology. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In February 2024, Bulgaria's parliament approved negotiations with Hyundai Engineering & Construction for the construction of two new reactors at Kozloduy, with Unit 7 expected to be completed by 2033. (Reuters)

    • In June 2024, Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant began using nuclear fuel produced by Westinghouse Electric Company, marking a significant step in reducing reliance on Russian energy sources. (The Moscow Times)

    • In February 2024, Bulgaria and the United States signed an intergovernmental agreement to cooperate on the development of Bulgaria’s civil nuclear programme, including plans for new units at the Kozloduy nuclear power plant. (Power Technology)

    • In June 2024, the Bulgarian government approved the construction of a new nuclear power plant on the site of the existing Kozloduy plant, with an environmental impact assessment (EIA) decision in force since 2019. The project is considered of national importance. (BULATOM)

    • In February 2025, Ukraine's parliament approved a plan to purchase unused VVER-1000 equipment from Bulgaria's cancelled Belene Nuclear Power Plant to complete Khmelnytskyi NPP units 3 and 4. (Reuters)

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🟢 Croatia

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  • Policy: Croatia does not have nuclear power plants on its territory but co-owns the Krško Nuclear Power Plant in Slovenia, which provides approximately 16% of Croatia's electricity needs. In 2025, the Croatian government established a Working Group for Nuclear Energy to explore the development of domestic nuclear capacity, including small modular reactors (SMRs), aiming to enhance energy security and reduce CO₂ emissions. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In February 2025, the Ministry of Economy formed a Working Group for Nuclear Energy to assess potential locations for nuclear power development in Croatia, focusing on SMRs as a flexible and safer alternative to traditional reactors. (Balkan Green Energy News)

    • The Croatian government is considering building its own nuclear power capacities, including SMRs, to address growing energy demands and the planned decommissioning of the Krško plant by 2043. (U.S. Department of Commerce)

    • In March 2025, Croatia initiated discussions with the United States regarding the installation of SMRs, aiming to leverage advanced, safe, and cost-effective nuclear technologies. (Balkan Green Energy News)

    • Croatia's energy strategy includes the establishment of a Nuclear Energy Agency to oversee regulatory aspects of nuclear development and to ensure alignment with international safety standards. (Institute of Energy for South-East Europe)

    • The government has launched initiatives to develop educational programs in nuclear energy at domestic universities, aiming to build expertise and support the future nuclear workforce. (World Nuclear News)

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🟢 Czech Republic

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  • Policy: The Czech Republic operates six nuclear reactors, generating approximately one-third of their electricity. The government has ambitious goals to increase the share of nuclear energy to 44% by 2030 and 68% by 2040, aiming to enhance energy security and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. (World Nuclear Association)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In July 2024, the Czech government selected South Korea's Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power (KHNP) to construct two new reactors at the Dukovany Nuclear Power Plant, each with a capacity of 1,063 MW. The project, estimated at $18 billion, is the largest energy investment in the country's history. (Reuters)

    • In May 2025, the European Commission requested a delay in signing the contract with KHNP, citing concerns over potential foreign subsidies and their impact on the EU market. (Anadolu Agency)

    • In August 2024, EDF and Westinghouse filed appeals against the Czech government's decision to award the nuclear tender to KHNP, raising concerns about the tender process and potential licensing issues. (Reuters)

    • In November 2024, the Czech power company ČEZ signed a deal with Britain's Rolls-Royce SMR to develop and deploy small modular reactors (SMRs), with plans to build the first SMR at Temelín by the early 2030s. (AP News)

    • ​In December 2024, the Czech government approved the updated National Energy and Climate Plan, reaffirming the role of nuclear energy in achieving climate goals and reducing energy dependence. (Brno Daily)

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🟢 Estonia

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  • Policy: Estonia's national nuclear policy focuses on exploring the potential of nuclear energy, particularly small modular reactors (SMRs), to meet its climate goals and enhance energy security. A resolution passed by the Estonian parliament in June 2024 supports the adoption of nuclear energy and paves the way for establishing the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks. (IAEA)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In February 2023, Fermi Energia, a privately held Estonian company, announced plans to build Estonia’s first nuclear power plant, selecting GE Hitachi’s BWRX-300 Small Modular Reactor (SMR) technology. (Fermi Energia)

    • Fermi Energia selected GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy's BWRX-300 small modular reactor for potential deployment in Estonia by the early 2030s. (World Nuclear News)

    • In January 2025, Fermi Energia submitted an application to the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications to initiate a national designated spatial plan for a 600 MW nuclear power plant. (ERR News)

    • In May 2025, the Estonian government officially launched the process for a national designated spatial plan and strategic environmental impact assessment for the proposed 600 MW nuclear power plant, following Fermi Energia's application. (Estonian Government)

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🟢 Finland

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  • Policy: Finland regards nuclear energy as a cornerstone of its clean energy strategy, aiming for carbon neutrality by 2035. Nuclear power accounts for approximately 40% of the country's electricity production. The government supports the development of new nuclear projects that meet national criteria and is exploring new pricing mechanisms to encourage further investment. (Finnish Government)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In April 2023, the Olkiluoto 3 reactor commenced regular electricity production, becoming Europe's first new nuclear unit in over 15 years. (TVO)

    • Public support for nuclear energy in Finland reached a record high in April 2025, with 68% of Finns viewing nuclear energy positively, according to a survey commissioned by Energy Industry Finland. (Helsinki Times)

    • In March 2025, Finnish utility Fortum announced it would pause new nuclear investments due to low electricity prices and high construction costs, focusing instead on extending the lifetime of existing plants and exploring renewable energy options. (Reuters)

    • In May 2025, Russia's state nuclear corporation Rosatom filed a $2.8 billion lawsuit against Finnish firms Fortum and Outokumpu over the cancellation of the Hanhikivi-1 nuclear power plant project. (Reuters)

    • Finland is constructing the world's first deep geological repository for spent nuclear fuel, known as Onkalo, located near the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant. The facility is expected to begin operations in 2025. (BBC)

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🟢 France

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  • Policy: France has reaffirmed its commitment to nuclear energy as a cornerstone of its energy strategy, aiming for carbon neutrality by 2050. The government plans to construct up to 14 new reactors, including six EPR2 units, to replace aging infrastructure and ensure energy sovereignty. Nuclear energy currently accounts for approximately 67% of France's electricity production. (EnerData)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In January 2024, the government introduced an energy bill prioritizing nuclear power, setting targets for building new reactors while omitting specific goals for renewable energy expansion. The bill emphasizes nuclear energy as a competitive and carbon-free source of electricity (France 24).

    • France reached a record 95% low-carbon electricity production in 2024, with nuclear power contributing 67.4% to the energy mix. This marks a significant rebound in nuclear output after previous challenges (Energy News).

    • In May 2024, France enacted Law No. 2024-450 to accelerate nuclear development, simplifying procedures and supporting the EPR2 construction program at sites including Penly, Gravelines, and Bugey (DLA Piper).

    • EDF revised its Nuward SMR design in July 2024, opting for established technologies to meet market demands. A new conceptual design is expected by mid-2026, with deployment aimed for the 2030s (Wikipedia).

    • In November 2024, the government considered providing EDF with a zero-interest loan to finance six new reactors, addressing financial challenges and supporting nuclear expansion (Reuters).

    • ​In December 2024, the Flamanville 3 EPR reactor was connected to the grid, producing electricity after years of delays and cost overruns, enhancing France's nuclear capacity (Wikipedia).

    • In May 2025, France and Germany resolved a long-standing disagreement over nuclear energy legislation, with Germany agreeing to treat nuclear power equally with renewables in EU climate policies (Reuters).

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🟢 Hungary

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  • Policy: Hungary relies heavily on nuclear energy, with the Paks Nuclear Power Plant supplying approximately 50% of their electricity. The government plans to expand nuclear capacity by constructing two new reactors (Units 5 and 6) at the Paks site, utilizing Russian VVER-1200 technology. Hungary also aims to diversify its nuclear partnerships by collaborating with countries like China and the UK on nuclear energy development. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In October 2024, Hungary and Rosatom agreed on the schedule for the construction of the Paks II nuclear power plant, reaffirming their commitment to the project despite EU sanctions on Russia. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Hungary's government submitted a bill to parliament to allow an amendment of its nuclear plant contract with Russia and raise the planned cost of the construction project if warranted, aiming to ensure the smooth continuation of the Paks II project. (Reuters)

    • In February 2025, the EU Court of Justice's advocate-general recommended ruling in favour of Austria in its appeal against the European Commission's approval of Hungary's state aid for the Paks II expansion, citing concerns over procurement rules. (Reuters)

    • In February 2025, Hungary and the UK announced strategic cooperation in the field of nuclear industry, focusing on making small modular reactors (SMRs) available for energy supply as soon as possible. (Nuclear Engineering International)

    • In October 2024, Framatome and MVM Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd signed a contract for the long-term supply of nuclear fuel to Hungary’s Paks VVER reactors from 2027, enhancing energy security and reducing dependence on Russian supplies. (Nuclear Engineering International)

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🟢 Netherlands

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  • Policy: The Netherlands is actively expanding its nuclear energy program to enhance energy security and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. The government plans to construct four new nuclear power plants by 2040, increasing the allocated funding from €4.5 billion to €14 billion. (A&O Shearman)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In May 2024, the Dutch government reaffirmed its commitment to nuclear energy, announcing plans to build four new nuclear reactors and explore the development of small modular reactors (SMRs) through public-private partnerships. (Reuters)

    • The government is considering multiple sites for the new reactors, including Borssele, Tweede Maasvlakte near Rotterdam, Terneuzen in Zeeland, and Eemshaven in Groningen. However, the decision on the final locations has been delayed, with no definitive timeline announced. (NL Times)

    • Three nuclear reactor designs - by Westinghouse, EDF, and Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power (KHNP) - were evaluated for the new plants. KHNP has since withdrawn, leaving Westinghouse and EDF as the remaining candidates. (NucNet)

    • In December 2024, the European Commission approved €2.2 billion in Dutch state aid for the construction of a new nuclear reactor dedicated to producing medical isotopes for cancer treatment, addressing potential shortages expected after 2030. (Reuters)

    • The government is also exploring the extension of the operational life of the existing Borssele nuclear power plant beyond its current license expiration in 2033, pending technical feasibility studies and necessary legislative amendments. (World Nuclear Association)

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🟢 Poland

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  • Policy: Poland is undertaking a significant shift in its energy strategy, aiming to reduce its heavy reliance on coal by investing in nuclear power. The government plans to develop up to 14 GWe of nuclear capacity by 2050, with strong public support - 92.5% of Poles favour the construction of nuclear power plants. (Chambers and Partners)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In April 2025, Polskie Elektrownie Jądrowe (PEJ) signed an Engineering Development Agreement with Westinghouse and Bechtel for the construction of Poland's first nuclear power plant at the Lubiatowo-Kopalino site in Pomerania. The project will feature three AP1000 reactors. (Westinghouse)

    • In March 2025, President Andrzej Duda signed a law allocating PLN 60 billion (€14.4 billion) in public funding for the construction of the first nuclear power plant, with additional financing expected from international partners. (NucNet)

    • In January 2025, the Council of Ministers adopted a draft amendment to the Nuclear Spec Act, facilitating the recapitalization of PEJ by the State Treasury between 2025 and 2030 to support the nuclear project. (Dentons)

    • Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk announced that domestic companies are expected to earn approximately $14 billion from the construction of the first nuclear power plant, emphasizing the importance of local involvement in the project. (Reuters)

    • In January 2025, Poland and Canada signed a cooperation agreement to enhance collaboration in nuclear energy, including the development of small modular reactors (SMRs). Poland plans to deploy 24 SMR units by 2030 through Orlen Synthos Green Energy. (Reuters)

    • In April 2025, Poland and the United States signed agreed to advance the construction of a nuclear power plant on the Baltic Sea coast, reinforcing the strategic partnership between tboth countries in the energy sector. (EADaily)

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🟢 Romania

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  • Policy: Romania currently operates two CANDU reactors at the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant, supplying approximately 19% of their electricity. The government aims to double nuclear capacity by 2031 through the addition of two new reactors and the refurbishment of existing units. The National Energy Strategy 2025–2035 emphasizes nuclear energy as a cornerstone for achieving energy security and decarbonization goals. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In December 2024, Nuclearelectrica signed a €1.9 billion contract for the refurbishment of Unit 1 at Cernavodă, extending its operational life by 30 years. The project involves a consortium including AtkinsRéalis, the Canadian Commercial Corporation, Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power (KHNP), and Ansaldo Nucleare. (NucNet)

    • In November 2024, the government approved the National Energy Strategy 2025–2035, outlining plans to resume domestic uranium production to support nuclear energy expansion and reduce reliance on imports. (SeeNews)

    • In October 2024, a consortium led by Fluor Corporation received a limited notice to proceed with the design phase for Units 3 and 4 at Cernavodă. The project, valued at approximately €3.2 billion, includes partners such as AtkinsRéalis, Sargent & Lundy, and Ansaldo Nucleare. (Fluor Corporation)

    • In March 2025, Nuclearelectrica announced plans to make a preliminary investment decision on the construction of a small modular reactor (SMR) plant in Doicești by the end of 2025. The project, in partnership with U.S.-based NuScale Power, aims to have the SMR operational by 2029, potentially making it Europe's first of its kind. (Reuters)

    • In June 2024, construction commenced on a tritium removal facility at Cernavodă, developed in collaboration with Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power. This facility will be the first of its kind in Europe, enhancing Romania's nuclear waste management capabilities. (European Investment Bank)

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🟢 Russia

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  • Policy: Russia is a global leader in nuclear energy, with 38 operating reactors supplying approximately 20% of its electricity. The state-owned corporation Rosatom oversees the entire nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to reactor construction and operation. Russia is actively expanding its nuclear capacity domestically and internationally, aiming to increase nuclear power's share in its energy mix to 23.5% by 2042. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In March 2025, Rosatom announced plans to construct 24 new nuclear reactor units in Russia by 2045, as part of its strategy to enhance energy security and reduce carbon emissions. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Rosatom confirmed that it continues to supply enriched uranium to international customers, including the United States, under special licensing regimes, despite geopolitical tensions and sanctions. (Reuters)

    • In September 2024, President Vladimir Putin suggested considering restrictions on exports of strategic commodities, including uranium, titanium, and nickel, as a response to Western sanctions. (Reuters)

    • In April 2024, Rosatom signed an agreement to develop a floating nuclear power plant for Russia's Far Eastern coast, aiming to provide reliable, carbon-free electricity to remote regions. (World Nuclear News)

    • In May 2024, Russia began developing a nuclear power unit intended for a joint lunar station with China, marking a significant step in space exploration collaboration between the two nations. (Reuters)

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🟢 Slovakia

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  • Policy: Slovakia relies heavily on nuclear energy, with five operational reactors across the Mochovce and Bohunice sites supplying approximately 50% of their electricity, which could increase to 70% when Mochovce Unit 4 is completed. Slovakia is also exploring new nuclear projects, including a 1,200 MW reactor at Jaslovské Bohunice and small modular reactors (SMRs), to enhance energy security and decarbonization efforts. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In September 2024, Mochovce Unit 3 reached full power, marking a significant milestone in Slovakia's nuclear expansion, which will contribute substantially to the national grid final testing is completed. (World Nuclear News)

    • In May 2024, the Slovak government directed its economy and finance ministers to devise a plan for a new 1,200 MW nuclear power plant at Jaslovské Bohunice by October 2024. The project is intended to be fully state-owned, with potential suppliers from France, the U.S., and South Korea, explicitly excluding Russia's Rosatom. (Reuters)

    • In October 2024, Slovakia received a $5 million grant from the U.S. government's Nuclear Expediting the Energy Transition (NEXT) project to support the selection of a site for the construction of SMRs, aiming to diversify the country's nuclear energy portfolio. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Slovenské elektrárne signed a fuel supply agreement with Framatome to diversify nuclear fuel sources for Slovakia's VVER reactors, enhancing energy security and reducing dependence on Russian supplies. (World Nuclear News)

    • In September 2024, Slovakia's Prime Minister Robert Fico visited South Korea to discuss the construction of a new nuclear power unit at Jaslovské Bohunice, considering South Korea's KHNP as a potential partner, alongside French and U.S. companies. (Reuters)

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🟢 Slovenia

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  • Policy: Slovenia operates a single nuclear power plant, the 696 MW Krško Nuclear Power Plant, which began commercial operation in 1983. Co-owned with Croatia, Krško supplies approximately one-third of Slovenia's electricity. In 2015, its operational lifetime was extended by 20 years, allowing it to operate until 2043.

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  • Recent changes:

    • In October 2024, the Slovenian parliament canceled a planned referendum on the construction of a second reactor at Krško (JEK2), citing concerns about the referendum's fairness and the public's ability to make an informed decision. Despite the cancellation, the government announced plans to continue preparing a special law for JEK2 and to proceed with the project's development. (Reuters)

    • In February 2025, the Slovenian government held consultations with potential suppliers for the JEK2 project, including EDF and Westinghouse. KHNP withdrew from the process in January, leaving EDF and Westinghouse as the primary contenders. (NucNet)

    • In March 2025, Slovenia's state-owned power company, GEN energija, provided updated cost estimates for the JEK2 project, ranging from €9.314 billion for a 1,000 MWe unit to €15.371 billion for a 1,650 MWe unit. (Nuclear Engineering International)

    • In April 2025, Slovenia considered bids from French and U.S. companies for the construction of JEK2, highlighting the strategic importance of nuclear power in the European Union's Net Zero Industry Act. The new reactor is planned to be built adjacent to the existing Krško plant. (Central European Times)

    • In January 2025, the Krško Nuclear Power Plant exceeded its electricity production targets, generating 522,067 MWh of net electricity, surpassing the planned production of 515,000 MWh by 1.4%. The plant operated within its technical specifications, with all safety systems functioning correctly. (Serbia Energy)

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🟢 Spain

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  • Policy: Spain is maintaining its plan to phase out nuclear power by 2035, as outlined in the 2019 National Energy and Climate Plan. The government remains committed to a transition toward a renewable-based energy system. The first nuclear reactor is scheduled for closure in 2027, and all existing plants are expected to be shut down by 2035 (World Nuclear Association).

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  • Recent changes:

    • In 2024, Spain's nuclear fleet generated approximately 52.4 TWh of electricity, contributing 19.57% of total net electricity production. Nuclear remained the second-largest source of power generation after renewables (World Nuclear News).

    • On 28 April 2025, a major blackout affected large parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The incident triggered public debate about grid stability and raised concerns over the reliability of intermittent renewable energy sources (AP News, Reuters).

    • In response to the blackout, Spain’s nuclear industry renewed calls to reconsider the phase-out, emphasizing the role of nuclear power in energy security and economic stability. The government, however, has reiterated its position on closing all reactors by 2035 (Foro Nuclear).

    • Nuclear energy industry group Foro Nuclear stated that nuclear remains a “fundamental technology to ensure supply and decarbonisation” of Spain’s energy system (NucNet).

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🟢 Sweden

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  • Policy: Sweden currently operates six nuclear reactors across three sites - Forsmark, Ringhals, and Oskarshamn - which collectively provide about 30% of their electricity. In 2023, the government shifted its energy target from 100% renewable to 100% fossil-free electricity by 2045, facilitating the expansion of nuclear power. The government aims to add at least 2,500 MW of new nuclear capacity by 2035 and plans for a "massive expansion" by 2045, potentially adding up to ten new reactors. (World Nuclear News)

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  • Recent changes:​

    • In August 2024, a government commission estimated that expanding nuclear power to address climate change would cost around 400 billion Swedish crowns ($38 billion). The commission recommended that the state fund 75% of the costs through loans and guarantees. (Reuters)

    • In October 2024, Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson announced that Sweden would begin construction of a new nuclear power plant before the next legislative election in 2026, marking a significant step in the country's nuclear energy expansion. (NucNet)

    • In November 2024, the Swedish government unveiled a roadmap for new nuclear power, clarifying targets and providing long-term conditions for expansion. The plan includes appointing a nuclear power coordinator and introducing a risk-sharing model to attract investments. (World Nuclear News)

    • In January 2025, the National Nuclear New-build Coordinator released an interim report assessing the progress of Sweden's nuclear expansion plans. The report highlighted ongoing efforts to streamline regulations and facilitate new reactor construction. (Government.se)

    • In March 2025, the Swedish government proposed state loans and power price guarantees to support the construction of four new nuclear reactors, aiming to increase electricity output and reduce carbon emissions. This move addresses financial concerns hindering private sector investment. (Reuters)

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🟢 Switzerland

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  • Policy: Switzerland currently operates three nuclear power plants: Beznau (two units), Gösgen, and Leibstadt. Together, they provide approximately one-third of their electricity. Following the 2011 Fukushima disaster, Switzerland decided to gradually phase out nuclear energy, culminating in a 2017 referendum that banned the construction of new nuclear power plants. However, recent energy challenges have prompted a reevaluation of this policy.

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  • Recent changes:

    • In August 2024, the Swiss government announced plans to lift the ban on constructing new nuclear power plants, citing energy security concerns and the need for a diversified energy mix. Energy Minister Albert Rösti emphasized that new nuclear facilities could provide a long-term solution for secure energy supplies in a geopolitically uncertain time. (Reuters)

    • In December 2024, Axpo announced a CHF 350 million investment to extend the operational life of Beznau Unit 2 until 2032 and Unit 1 until 2033, as part of efforts to ensure energy supply during the transition period. (Wikipedia)

    • In April 2025, the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI) reported that all nuclear installations met safety requirements in 2024, with 36 reportable events recorded, none of which compromised public or environmental safety. (ENSI)

    • In May 2024, Switzerland endorsed a nuclear transmutation technology developed by Geneva-based Transmutex, aiming to reduce radioactive waste volume by up to 80%. This technology could significantly address long-standing nuclear waste storage challenges. (Financial Times)

    • In March 2025, the Swiss Parliament began debating amendments to the Nuclear Energy Act, with consultations expected to conclude by the end of 2025. The proposed changes would allow for the construction of new nuclear power plants, reversing the 2017 ban. (SWI swissinfo.ch)

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🟢 Turkey

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  • Policy: Turkey is advancing its nuclear energy program to diversify its energy mix and reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels. The country aims to achieve 20 GW of nuclear capacity by 2050, contributing to its goal of carbon neutrality by 2053. (World Nuclear Association)

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  • Recent changes:

    • The Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant, located in Mersin Province, is Turkey's first nuclear power facility. Built by Russia's Rosatom under a build-own-operate (BOO) model, the plant will consist of four VVER-1200 reactors with a total capacity of 4,800 MW. The first unit is expected to become operational in 2025, with the remaining units following by 2028. (Nuclear Engineering International)

    • In September 2024, delays in the Akkuyu project were reported due to Siemens Energy withholding key components, likely in compliance with Western sanctions on Russia. To mitigate these delays, Rosatom sourced alternative parts from Chinese suppliers. (Reuters)

    • Turkey is negotiating with South Korea and Russia for a second nuclear power plant in Sinop, and with China's State Power Investment Corporation (SPIC) for a third plant in the Thrace region. Discussions also include the development of small modular reactors (SMRs) to further diversify nuclear energy sources. (Reuters)

    • In December 2024, Energy Minister Alparslan Bayraktar confirmed that the first reactor at Akkuyu is 90% complete and will come online in 2025. The remaining three reactors are scheduled to be operational by 2028, collectively supplying up to 10% of Turkey's electricity needs. (AGBI)

    • In October 2024, Turkey joined the "Declaration to Triple Nuclear Energy" at COP29 in Baku, aligning with 31 countries to expand nuclear energy as part of global decarbonization efforts. (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources)

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🟢 Ukraine

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  • Policy: Ukraine relies heavily on nuclear energy, with 15 reactors generating approximately half of their electricity. The government is actively pursuing energy independence by expanding nuclear capacity, diversifying fuel sources, and developing domestic fuel production capabilities. (World Nuclear Association)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In June 2024, Energoatom and Westinghouse expanded their agreement to include the construction of nine AP1000 reactors across Ukraine, enhancing their nuclear capacity and reducing reliance on Russian technology. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Ukraine and Holtec International signed a master agreement to establish a manufacturing facility for small modular reactors (SMRs) and nuclear fuel storage systems, positioning Ukraine as a regional hub for SMR technology. (World Nuclear News)

    • In March 2025, Energoatom and Cameco finalized a long-term agreement for the supply of natural uranium hexafluoride, ensuring fuel supply for Ukraine's reactors at Rivne, Khmelnytskyi, and South Ukraine nuclear power plants through 2035. (World Nuclear News)

    • In February 2025, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) raised concerns about the safety of Ukraine's nuclear facilities due to ongoing attacks on the country's energy infrastructure, emphasizing the need for uninterrupted power supply to maintain nuclear safety systems. (Reuters)

    • In March 2025, discussions between U.S. and Ukrainian officials included proposals for U.S. involvement in the management and potential restoration of the Russian-occupied Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, highlighting international efforts to secure Ukraine's nuclear assets. (Reuters)

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🟢 United Kingdom

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  • Policy: In February 2025, the UK government introduced the draft National Policy Statement for Nuclear Energy Generation (EN-7), aiming to streamline the planning process for new nuclear projects, including Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), and to expand the list of potential sites beyond the existing eight designated locations. (GOV.UK)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In May 2025, the UK Parliament passed the Great British Energy Act, establishing a publicly owned energy company to invest in clean energy infrastructure, including nuclear power. (Lords Library)

    • The government announced plans to open new sites in England and Wales for nuclear energy development, aiming to attract private investment in SMRs as part of its decarbonization efforts. (Reuters)

    • Prime Minister Keir Starmer emphasized the need to overcome local opposition to nuclear projects, stating: "Build, build, build - that is what Britain’s clean energy mission is all about." (The Guardian)

    • Rolls-Royce is advancing its SMR technology as a quicker and cheaper alternative to large nuclear plants, with plans to have the first SMR operational in the UK by the early 2030s. (The Guardian)

    • The Sizewell C nuclear power station project in Suffolk, comprising two EPR reactors with a combined capacity of 3,260 MW, is progressing, with preliminary works underway and a final investment decision expected in mid-2025. (Financial Times)

    • EDF Energy announced life extensions for Heysham 1 and Heysham 2 nuclear power stations, with operations now expected to continue until 2027 and 2030, respectively. (EDF)

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🟡 Denmark

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  • Policy: Denmark has prohibited domestic nuclear power generation since 1985. However, in May 2025, the Danish government announced a formal review of the ban, citing energy security concerns and advancements in small modular reactor (SMR) technology. Climate and Energy Minister Lars Aagaard stated: "Denmark has no recent experience with nuclear power, which is why it is important that we start analysing the potential. Can this technology complement what will be dominant in our country: solar and wind?" (Reuters)

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  • Recent changes:

    • Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen expressed openness to nuclear energy, remarking: "It is better that we have nuclear power in Europe than that we are dependent on Russian gas." (The Copenhagen Post).

    • Public support for nuclear energy has grown, with recent polls indicating that between 42% and 56% of Danes favour lifting the ban, while approximately 26% oppose it.

    • The Danish government is conducting a year-long study to assess the risks and potential of integrating nuclear power, particularly SMRs, into the national energy system.

    • Denmark is establishing a €350 million fund to support the development of SMRs and advanced nuclear technologies, aiming to diversify its energy mix and meet rising electricity demand driven by data centers and industrial electrification.

    • The Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has opened a multidisciplinary research center focusing on nuclear energy technology, marking a significant step in domestic nuclear research.

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🟡 Germany

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  • Policy: Germany completed its nuclear phase-out on 15 April 2023, shutting down its last three reactors - Emsland, Isar II, and Neckarwestheim II - as part of its long-standing Energiewende strategy. However, in 2025, the new government led by Chancellor Friedrich Merz signaled a major policy shift, calling the phase-out "a strategic error". Germany now supports recognizing nuclear energy alongside renewables in EU climate policy and is exploring advanced technologies such as small modular reactors (SMRs) and fusion.

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  • Recent changes:

    • On 19 May 2025, Germany and France resolved their dispute over nuclear classification in EU law, with Germany agreeing to treat nuclear power as equivalent to renewables for climate targets. (Reuters)

    • In early 2025, Chancellor Merz reaffirmed his administration’s view that the 2023 shutdown of the last reactors was "a costly mistake that undermined energy sovereignty". His coalition is actively examining the feasibility of deploying SMRs. (Financial Times)

    • In March 2025, Focused Energy, a fusion startup backed by U.S. and German interests, signed a deal with RWE and the state of Hesse to explore building a fusion pilot plant at the decommissioned Biblis nuclear site. (Reuters)

    • Despite the policy pivot, Germany faces long regulatory timelines and financial barriers in restarting nuclear development or entering next-gen fusion markets.

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🟡 Italy

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  • Policy: In February 2025, Italy's Council of Ministers approved a draft law to reintroduce nuclear energy, overturning bans from referendums in 1987 and 2011. The legislation aims to establish a legal framework for sustainable nuclear power, focusing on advanced modular reactors (AMRs) and small modular reactors (SMRs). The government plans to finalize the strategy by the end of 2027. (Reuters)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In September 2023, Italy launched the "National Platform for Sustainable Nuclear," tasked with drafting a roadmap for nuclear energy development by 2030, focusing on SMRs and fourth-generation reactors. The platform brings together public institutions, research organizations, and industry stakeholders to coordinate efforts in nuclear technology development. (Agenzia Nova)

    • In May 2025, Enel, Leonardo, and Ansaldo Energia established Nuclitalia, a joint venture to research next-generation nuclear technologies, focusing initially on water-cooled SMRs. Enel holds a 51% stake, Ansaldo Energia 39%, and Leonardo 10%. (Reuters)

    • U.S. company Westinghouse proposed utilizing decommissioned nuclear sites in Italy to install SMRs, aiming to start construction by 2030. Discussions are ongoing with potential partners, including EDF and Edison. (Reuters)

    • Energy Minister Gilberto Pichetto Fratin announced that nuclear power could supply between 11% and 22% of Italy's electricity by 2050, potentially saving €17 billion in decarbonization costs. (Reuters)

    • In October 2024, Italy joined the European Industrial Alliance on SMRs and remains an observer in the European Nuclear Alliance, aligning with 31 countries to expand nuclear energy as part of global decarbonization efforts. (Le Monde)

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🟡 Latvia

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  • Policy: Latvia does not currently operate any nuclear power plants. However, in response to energy security concerns and the need for a diversified energy mix, the government is actively exploring the potential role of nuclear energy, particularly small modular reactors (SMRs), in its future energy strategy.

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  • Recent changes:

    • In March 2024, the Ministry of Climate and Energy (KEM) presented a report to the Saeima's Environment, Climate and Energy Subcommittee outlining potential pathways for nuclear energy development. The report identified six potential sites for nuclear reactors, including one near Lake Rāzna in the Latgale region. (LSM)

    • In May 2024, Latvia participated in the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) International Conference on Nuclear Security, emphasizing its commitment to enhancing radiation safety and regulatory frameworks. (IAEA)

    • In September 2024, Latvia hosted an online conference titled "Nuclear Energy for Latvia," bringing together international experts to discuss the prospects of nuclear energy in the country. The conference covered topics such as SMR deployment, regulatory frameworks, and regional cooperation. (LSM)

    • In July 2024, the Cabinet of Ministers approved the updated National Energy and Climate Plan, which includes considerations for nuclear energy as part of Latvia's long-term energy strategy. (LSM)

    • In October 2024, an IAEA Integrated Regulatory Review Service (IRRS) follow-up mission recognized Latvia's progress in improving its nuclear and radiation safety regulatory infrastructure. The mission noted significant advancements since the initial IRRS mission in 2019. (IAEA)

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🟡 Norway

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  • Policy: Norway has historically relied on hydropower for its electricity needs and has not operated commercial nuclear power plants. However, recent energy demands and climate goals have prompted the government to reconsider nuclear energy, particularly small modular reactors (SMRs), as a potential component of its future energy mix.

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  • Recent changes:

    • In June 2024, the Norwegian government established a 12-member expert committee, led by former Finance Minister Kristin Halvorsen, to evaluate the feasibility of integrating nuclear power into Norway's energy system. The committee's mandate includes assessing technological advancements, environmental impacts, regulatory needs, and financial considerations for nuclear power, with a report due by April 1, 2026. (NucNet)

    • In November 2023, Norsk Kjernekraft submitted a proposal to Norway's Ministry of Energy for an assessment into the construction of a power plant based on multiple SMRs in the municipalities of Aure and Heim. The proposed plant aims to enhance energy security and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. (World Nuclear News)

    • In August 2024, Norsk Kjernekraft submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Energy for an assessment of the construction of a power plant based on multiple SMRs in the municipality of Øygarden, west of Bergen. The proposed site has space for five SMRs, each with a generating capacity of 300 MWe. (World Nuclear News)

    • In January 2025, Halden Kjernekraft AS entered into a letter of intent with the owner of a plot of land in Halden identified as a possible location for the construction of a nuclear power plant based on SMRs. The company plans to submit the project to Norway's Ministry of Energy for assessment. (World Nuclear News)

    • In November 2024, Norsk Kjernekraft signed a memorandum of understanding with US-based advanced reactor developer X-energy to explore the deployment of SMRs in Norway. The collaboration aims to combine X-energy's reactor technology with Norwegian expertise in nuclear power facilities. (World Nuclear News)

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🔴 Austria

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  • Policy: Austria maintains a strict anti-nuclear stance, enshrined in its 1999 Constitutional Law on a Nuclear-Free Austria, which prohibits the construction and operation of nuclear power plants for energy generation. The country relies heavily on renewable energy sources, particularly hydropower, to meet its electricity needs. (ENSREG)

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  • Recent changes:

    • In March 2024, Austria led a coalition of EU member states opposing the inclusion of nuclear energy in the bloc's green taxonomy, reinforcing its commitment to a nuclear-free energy policy and promoting investments in renewable energy infrastructure. (Reuters)

    • Austria advocates for the exclusion of nuclear energy from the EU's renewable energy targets, emphasizing the importance of focusing on what they consider to be truly sustainable and safe energy sources. Austria expresses concern that including nuclear power could divert investments away from renewables like wind and solar. (Reuters)

    • n August 2024, Austria's updated National Energy and Climate Plan reaffirmed their goal of 100% renewable electricity by 2030, with a strong emphasis on solar and wind energy capacity. The plan outlines measures to enhance energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in line with EU targets. (European Commission)

    • Austria continues to monitor and express concerns over nuclear facilities in neighbouring countries, particularly the Czech Republic's Temelín Nuclear Power Plant, advocating for stringent safety measures and transparency to protect the environment and public health. (Federal Ministry for Climate Action)

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🔴 Ireland

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  • Policy: Ireland prohibits domestic nuclear power generation under Section 18(6) of the Electricity Regulation Act 1999, which states: "An order under this section shall not provide for the use of nuclear fission for the generation of electricity." (Irish Statute Book). This ban does not apply to the importation of nuclear-generated electricity, which Ireland currently receives from the UK and, starting in 2026, also from France via the Celtic Interconnector.

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  • Recent changes:

    • The Celtic Interconnector, a 700 MW high-voltage direct current (HVDC) submarine power cable between Ireland and France, is scheduled to begin trial operations in 2026. It will enable electricity exchange, including nuclear-generated power from France, enhancing energy security and market resilience (EirGrid).

    • Advocacy group 18for0 has continued its campaign for consideration of nuclear energy located in Ireland, arguing that it is essential in a mix of clean energies to achieve reliable, carbon-free baseload power by 2050. (18for0).

    • Public and expert discussion around nuclear power has increased, with debate driven by concerns over energy affordability and grid reliability. Despite this, the Irish government has not proposed changing their legal prohibition.

    • Public support for nuclear energy has grown. 62% of Irish respondents in a 2024 Eurobarometer poll felt nuclear energy would have a 'positive' effect in the next 20 years, up 3% since the last poll in 2021.This is much higher than the EU27 average. Only 25% of Irish respondents felt nuclear energy would have a 'negative' effect; a decrease of 14%. Ireland is now one of the least negative about nuclear energy in the EU27.

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🔴 Luxembourg

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  • Policy: Luxembourg has a firm anti-nuclear stance and champions strict EU nuclear-safety rules. Electricity is imported (much of it nuclear-generated in France), while domestic policy focuses on renewables and efficiency. In 2024 it joined Austria in challenging the EU’s inclusion of nuclear in the green-finance taxonomy.

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🔴 Portugal

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  • Policy: Portugal remains non-nuclear, citing plentiful renewable resources and public opposition. National policy targets 80% renewable electricity by 2026 and monitors safety at Spain’s nearby Almaraz plant, but has no plans for any domestic reactor.

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The findings, interpretations, views, and conclusions expressed in these documents are those of the authors and do not purport to reflect the official policy or position of any other agency, organization, employer or company.

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